A speaker says 'It was Sarah who broke the vase' in a context where no one has actually broken any vase. This sentence is:
AGrammatically incorrect — it-clefts require a definite referent to be grammatical
BPragmatically odd because the it-cleft presupposes that someone broke the vase; when that presupposition fails, the construction is infelicitous even though it is grammatically well-formed
CGrammatically correct and pragmatically appropriate — it merely asserts Sarah's responsibility for the vase
DA pseudo-cleft rather than an it-cleft, which is why the presupposition fails
The it-cleft embeds its background clause ('someone broke the vase') as a presupposition — background information taken as established. When that presupposition is false, the sentence is infelicitous (pragmatically anomalous), not merely false. This distinguishes cleft focus from prosodic stress: 'SARAH broke the vase' (stressed) asserts without presupposing; the it-cleft presupposes and then asserts who.
Question 2 Multiple Choice
A writer wants to foreground the complex noun phrase 'the committee's decision to table the motion indefinitely' as the new information in a sentence. Which construction handles this more gracefully?
AAn it-cleft: 'It is the committee's decision to table the motion indefinitely that we must address'
BA pseudo-cleft: 'What we must address is the committee's decision to table the motion indefinitely'
CBoth constructions are equally natural for long, complex focused elements
DNeither cleft type can front a complex noun phrase as focused element
Pseudo-clefts handle long or syntactically complex focused elements more gracefully than it-clefts. The wh-clause sets up a variable slot and the complex noun phrase fills it as predicate — a natural structure. Fitting the same material into an it-cleft creates an unwieldy relative clause. This is the practical functional difference between the two types.
Question 3 True / False
An it-cleft like 'It was Mary who left early' and a simple sentence with a stressed focused constituent ('MARY left early') convey identical pragmatic information and differ mainly in stylistic register.
TTrue
FFalse
Answer: False
The critical difference is presupposition. 'MARY left early' (stress only) asserts who left without presupposing that anyone did — it is simply false if nobody left. 'It was Mary who left early' presupposes that someone left and asserts that it was Mary. If nobody left, the cleft is infelicitous rather than simply false. Different truth conditions in contexts where the presupposition may fail.
Question 4 True / False
In a pseudo-cleft like 'What I need is coffee,' the wh-clause establishes a variable whose value the focused predicate specifies.
TTrue
FFalse
Answer: True
Pseudo-clefts function as specificational sentences: the wh-clause opens a variable (what I need = ?) and the focused element following the copula fills it (coffee). This specificational structure is why pseudo-clefts are also called 'wh-clefts' — the wh-clause creates an open slot that the focus closes.
Question 5 Short Answer
What does it mean for a cleft construction to 'presuppose' its background clause, and how does this distinguish clefts from other focus-marking strategies like prosodic stress?
Think about your answer, then reveal below.
Model answer: A presupposition is background information taken as already established in context rather than being newly asserted. In 'It was John who arrived late,' the background clause ('someone arrived late') is presupposed — it is treated as common ground, not as a claim being made. The focus ('John') is what is asserted. Prosodic stress ('JOHN arrived late') marks John as the focus but makes no presupposition about whether anyone arrived late; if nobody did, the sentence is simply false. If the cleft's presupposition is false, the sentence is infelicitous — a different kind of failure.
Presupposition failure produces pragmatic anomaly rather than simple falsehood — the speech act misfires rather than being incorrect. This distinction matters for syntax-pragmatics analysis: clefts are not just emphatic constructions but structures with specific discourse-structural requirements.