A Japanese learner of English consistently omits articles ('I saw dog in park'). A teacher dismisses this as careless speech. What does SLA theory say is actually happening?
AThe errors are random and context-dependent — no systematic explanation applies
BThe errors reflect L1 transfer: Japanese has no article system, so the learner's interlanguage systematically omits articles following the L1 pattern
CThe errors indicate insufficient vocabulary knowledge rather than grammatical interference
DThe errors would disappear immediately with enough immersion, regardless of L1 background
This is a textbook case of negative L1 transfer. Because Japanese lacks articles entirely, the learner's developing interlanguage contains no rule for them — the L1 grammar is being applied to L2 output. The errors are systematic (not random), predictable from the L1, and persistent precisely because they don't prevent communication. This is why SLA researchers analyze error patterns: the errors reveal the structure of the learner's interlanguage, not just gaps in vocabulary.
Question 2 Multiple Choice
A study finds that English learners with French, Japanese, and Arabic L1 backgrounds all acquire English negation in the same sequence (no + VP → don't + VP → doesn't/didn't + VP). What does this most strongly suggest?
AL1 transfer is the dominant force shaping all L2 acquisition regardless of context
BThe teachers in the study all used the same grammar curriculum
CSome aspects of L2 acquisition follow universal developmental sequences driven by cognitive strategies rather than L1 habits
DAdult learners cannot acquire correct English negation without explicit formal instruction
When learners from diverse L1 backgrounds converge on the same developmental sequence, this is strong evidence for a universal cognitive process rather than L1 transfer (which would predict different sequences for different L1s). This is one of the key findings of SLA research: interlanguage development is shaped by both L1 transfer AND language-independent developmental sequences, and distinguishing between them requires comparing learners across L1 backgrounds.
Question 3 True / False
Interlanguage is a label for the collection of random errors a learner produces before achieving fluency — a deficient version of the target language.
TTrue
FFalse
Answer: False
Interlanguage is not a collection of errors — it is a real, rule-governed grammar. At every developmental stage, a learner has a systematic linguistic system with its own rules, even if those rules differ from both the L1 and the target L2. The consistent, patterned errors (like always omitting articles, or always placing negation before the main verb) are evidence of rules, not their absence. Treating interlanguage as 'broken L2' misses that it is a genuine linguistic system in its own right.
Question 4 True / False
The critical period hypothesis, as supported by contemporary evidence, predicts a gradient decline in language learning plasticity across the lifespan rather than a sharp biological cutoff at puberty.
TTrue
FFalse
Answer: True
The strong version of the critical period hypothesis (a sharp cutoff at puberty) is not well supported. Evidence from studies like Johnson and Newport (1989) shows a gradient relationship between age of acquisition and ultimate attainment, with earlier learners achieving higher proficiency on average but no hard cliff. Some adult learners, especially with sustained immersion and explicit feedback, achieve near-native proficiency. The neurological evidence points to gradual decline in plasticity, not a discrete switch.
Question 5 Short Answer
What is interlanguage, and why do linguists describe it as a 'real grammar' rather than just a set of mistakes?
Think about your answer, then reveal below.
Model answer: Interlanguage is the systematic, rule-governed grammar that a second language learner constructs at each stage of development — a linguistic system that is neither the learner's L1 nor the target L2, but something in between with its own internal logic. It is a 'real grammar' because the learner's errors are patterned and predictable, not random: they follow consistent rules that can be described, and they evolve through identifiable developmental stages. The same learner will make the same 'mistakes' consistently because those errors reflect the rules of their current interlanguage.
The concept of interlanguage (Selinker, 1972) was important because it shifted SLA research from viewing learners as defective native speakers to viewing them as active constructors of a systematic linguistic knowledge. This reframing explains why correcting individual errors often fails: the error reflects an underlying interlanguage rule that must be reorganized, not just a surface mistake to be patched.