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Structuralism proposes that literary meaning emerges from underlying systematic relationships, not from individual authorial intention. Literary works operate like languages, where meaning depends on how elements relate to and differ from each other. By mapping these structural relationships, critics expose the deep grammars that organize narrative, character, and symbolism.
Structuralism inherits its central insight from Saussurean linguistics: meaning is relational, not intrinsic. A word does not mean what it means because of some natural bond between the sound and the thing — it means what it means because of how it differs from every other word in the language. "Cat" means what it means in part because it is not "bat," not "rat," not "cap." Meaning arises from difference within a system, not from reference to the world. Structuralist literary criticism applies this principle to literature: a literary element — a character, a symbol, a narrative function, a genre convention — means what it means through its position in a systematic set of relationships, not through authorial intention or historical reference.
The key distinction structuralism introduces is between surface structure and deep structure. Surface structure is what the text presents directly: the specific characters, events, settings, language of this particular story. Deep structure is the underlying system that generates the surface structure — the grammar, as it were, from which all the surface variations are produced. Vladimir Propp's *Morphology of the Folktale* (1928) is the founding demonstration of this approach. Propp analyzed 100 Russian folktales and found that beneath enormous surface variation — different heroes, villains, settings, objects — there were only 31 basic narrative functions that appeared in the same sequence. The specific content of each function varied; its position in the structure was fixed. Propp had found the grammar of a genre.
Claude Lévi-Strauss extended this method to myth, arguing that myths across cultures are not best understood as specific stories with specific meanings but as structured sets of binary oppositions — nature/culture, raw/cooked, human/divine — that the myth works through and attempts to resolve. Every particular myth is, in this view, a transformation of an underlying structure of contradictions. The surface narrative exists to process these deep structural tensions. This is a radical move: it shifts the question from "what does this myth mean?" to "what deep structural problem does this myth's form resolve?"
The actantial model of A.J. Greimas further systematized narrative structure, arguing that all narratives can be analyzed in terms of six actants — Subject, Object, Sender, Receiver, Helper, Opponent — and three axes of relation between them. Any story, however elaborate, maps onto this schema. The critic's task is not to appreciate the unique qualities of the surface story but to reveal the deep grammar it instantiates. Deep structure analysis strips away individual variation to expose the underlying combinatorial system — and in doing so, it claims that what we take to be unique artistic creations are, at a deeper level, expressions of universal human cognitive and cultural structures.
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