Turán's Theorem determines the maximum number of edges in an n-vertex graph containing no clique of size r+1: the extremal graph is the Turán graph T(n,r), a balanced complete r-partite graph. This foundational result shows that complete multipartite graphs are optimal for avoiding cliques, initiating extremal graph theory.
A clique in a graph is a set of vertices that are all mutually adjacent — everyone is connected to everyone else. A triangle is a clique of size 3; K₄ is a clique of size 4. Extremal graph theory asks: how many edges can a graph have before it's forced to contain a clique of a given size? Turán's theorem answers this question exactly.
The question is subtler than it appears. You can always add edges to a graph until you create a clique — the question is how many edges you can pack in while *avoiding* one. Turán's insight was to identify the precise structure that maximizes edges without forming a K_{r+1}. That structure is the Turán graph T(n, r): take n vertices, divide them into r groups as evenly as possible, and add an edge between every pair of vertices that belong to *different* groups. Crucially, no two vertices in the same group are connected, which is exactly why no K_{r+1} can form: to have a clique of size r+1, you'd need r+1 mutually adjacent vertices, but since there are only r groups and two vertices in the same group share no edge, a clique can have at most one vertex from each group — giving maximum clique size r, not r+1.
The theorem says T(n, r) is not just *one* extremal graph — it is the *unique* graph (up to isomorphism) achieving the maximum edge count without a K_{r+1}. The edge count itself is called the Turán number ex(n, K_{r+1}). For example, ex(n, K₃) is the maximum number of edges in a triangle-free graph on n vertices, achieved by the complete bipartite graph K_{⌊n/2⌋, ⌈n/2⌉} — that's T(n, 2). Mantel's Theorem (1907) established this special case a generation before Turán proved the general result in 1941.
Why does "balanced" matter? If you split into r groups of unequal size, you can actually increase the edge count by equalizing them — transferring a vertex from a larger group to a smaller one always adds at least as many edges as it removes. This balancing argument is the combinatorial core of the proof. Turán's theorem inaugurated extremal graph theory, the study of how local constraints (avoiding a forbidden subgraph) bound global structure (edge density). It also underlies the Kruskal-Katona theorem, the Zarankiewicz problem, and many results in Ramsey theory — all asking what graph structure is forced when density is high enough.